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Photon Theory

What is the wavelength of white light, and is white light a mixture of the colors of the visible spectrum?   Many scientists believe or have faith that light does not have mass, thus they believe the Universe is Finite.  Religion promotes the most commonly accepted idea of the group.  If light does not have mass, then it would be impossible to move an electron.  Light described as a particle means nothing, if it has no mass since it would be impossible to distinguish from nothing because no mass means void of substance.  If it has no substance, then nothing is present to distinguish the particle from other particles.  The following description is based on the Infinite Universe:

Light is defined as a mixture of colors because it can be physically separated with a prism; however it behaves more like an allotrope that can be physically separated.                    

  • Mixture – can be physically separated
    1. Homogeneous mixture – coffee and water (the coffee and water can still be seen in the mixture)
    2. Heterogeneous mixture – Sand and salt (the sand and salt can still be seen in the mixture)
  • Compound – can only be separated by chemical reactions
  • Allotropes – one of two or more different molecular forms of a substance in the same physical state.  Oxygen (O2) and Ozone (O3) are examples   Red light has a specific frequency of photons compared to the frequency of Green light.  When these two are put together they form yellow light which does not fit the definition of a physical mixture, since the yellow light has a different physical appearance due to its configuration from the photons of green light and the photons of red light.  Thus light behaves more like an allotrope than a mixture.  It should be described as an allotrope that can be physically separated.  Green and red light are both made of photons, so classifying light as a mixture is incorrect.  Mixtures are made of two or more substances that don't have the same chemical structure or formula. 

Can the mass of light be calculated?

In the photoelectric effect, metals eject electrons called photoelectrons when light shines on them.  The alkali metals Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs are particularly subject to the effect.  Not just any frequency of light will cause the photoelectric effect.  Red light, for example, will not cause the ejection of photoelectrons from potassium, no matter how intense the light.  Yet even a very weak yellow light (v = 5.1 x 1014 s-1) shining on potassium begins the effect.

Yes, it can be mathematically calculated.  No, it can't be experimentally calculated.  The electron has a mass of 9.11 x 10-28 and 5.1 x 1014 photons can produce the photo-electric effect, then the mass of a photon can be calculated to be 1.8 x 10-42 g.

This calculation requires one electron ejection per sec associated with the frequency of yellow light.  If more or less electrons were ejected per second, then the frequency of photons associated with the yellow light would be more or less and that would correspond to other radiation on the electromagnetic spectrum.  Since the electrons are a moving target, the yellow light does not strike them all at the same time.  This is what sets up random electrons being emitted once the light shines continuously.  The mass has to be very close to that number.

Is white light a mixture of the colors of the visible spectrum?  A better explanation would be that White light has the energy to make all the colors of the spectrum. When we examine yellow light we don't see green or red light. White light has the ability to hold the photons necessary to make all the colors while keeping its specific wavelength as a guess.  Based on the following research, evidence indicates that white light has a wavelength distinctly different from the photons on the electromagnetic spectrum.  Electrons move in waves and the alternating current allows them to be transported from one place to another.  So energy can be described outside of the electromagnetic spectrum, since this spectrum only defines the frequency of the photon and not the electron.  Energy being defined as anything that is an electron or smaller.  The electromagnetic spectrum provides a description of light based on consistent behavior.  For example. equal proportions of green light and red light produce a yellow light.  The yellow light has a specific wavelength 597-577nm.   This and the other examples below provide evidence that white light should have its own specific wavelength.  Yellow light does not have the wavelength from green to red 492-780nm, as it should based on the current definition of white light.  This inconsistency indicates that something else is occurring.  The below research on water shows how solid and liquid behave and look distinctly different even though both are water.

The density change throughout a collection of water molecules provides a specific density for water as a liquid and water as a solid.  The only possibility for the photon would be a density change throughout the collection of particles, similar to what is seen in liquid water and solid water.

Thus a density change would result in the photons behaving differently than the photons in the standard electromagnetic spectrum.  Moreover, evidence indicates that white light has its own spectrum similar to the wavelengths that electrons occupy in an alternating current.  Photons in white light must be experiencing  a volume change.  This would attribute to the lack of a specific wavelength for white light and challenge the current definition of white light as a mixture of all the colors.

Does the photon have mass?  After all, it has energy and energy is equivalent to mass.

Quantum mechanics introduces the idea that light can be viewed as a collection of "particles"--photons.  Even though these photons cannot be brought to rest, and so the idea of rest mass doesn't really apply to them.

If we now return to the question "Does light have mass?", this can be taken to mean different things if the light is moving freely or trapped in a container.  The definition of the invariant mass of an object is m = sqrt{E2/c4 - p2/c2}.  By this definition a beam of light is mass less like the photons it is composed of.  However, if light is trapped in a box with perfect mirrors so the photons are continually reflected back and forth in both directions symmetrically in the box, then the total momentum is zero in the box's frame of reference but the energy is not.  Therefore the light adds a small contribution to the mass of the box.  This could be measured--in principle at least--either by the greater force required to accelerate the box, or by an increase in its gravitational pull.  You might say that the light in the box has mass, but it would be more correct to say that the light contributes to the total mass of the box of light.  You should not use this to justify the statement that light has mass in general (.http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/light_mass.html).

Relativistic mass is a measure of the energy E of a particle, which changes with velocity.  By convention, relativistic mass is not usually called the mass of a particle in contemporary physics so, at least semantically, it is wrong to say the photon has mass in this way.  But you can say that the photon has relativistic mass if you really want to.  In modern terminology the mass of an object is its invariant mass, which is zero for a photon, because photons cannot be brought to rest.                                                                                                        (http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/light_mass.html).

Visible Light Waves

Visible light waves are the only electromagnetic waves we can see. We see these waves as the colors of the rainbow. Each color has a different wavelength. Red has the longest wavelength and violet has the shortest wavelength. When all the waves are seen together, they make white light.

When white light shines through a prism, the white light is broken apart into the colors of the visible light spectrum. Water vapor in the atmosphere can also break apart wavelengths creating a rainbow.

Each color in a rainbow corresponds to a different wavelength of electromagnetic spectrum (http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/visible.html).

Color                            Wavelength (nm)                                Frequency (THz)
Red                              780 – 622                                              384 - 482
Orange                        622 – 597                                              482 - 503
Yellow                         597 – 577                                              503 - 520         
Green                          577 – 492                                              520 - 610
Blue                             492 – 455                                              610 - 659
Violet                           455 – 390                                              659 – 769

The white  light is a mixture of the colors of the visible spectra (http://www.usbyte.com/common/approximate_wavelength.htm).

 

 

 

Primary Additive Colors

Light is perceived as white by humans when all three cone cell types of the eye are simultaneously stimulated by equal amounts of red, green, and blue light. Because the addition of these three colors yields white light, the colors red, green, and blue are termed the primary additive colors.

The ability to perceive other colors requires the stimulation of one, two, or all three types of cone cells to a varying degree with the appropriate wavelength palette.

·         equal portions of green and blue light are added together, the resulting color is termed cyan.

·         equal portions of green and red light produce the color yellow

·         equal portions of red and blue light yield the color magenta.

The colors cyan, magenta, and yellow are commonly termed the complementary colors because each complements one of the primary colors in a white light mixture. Yellow (red plus green) is the complement of blue because when the two colors are added together white light is produced. Likewise, cyan (green plus blue) is the complement of red, and magenta (red plus blue) is the complement of green light (http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/primarycolors/additiveprimaries/index.html).

Molecular basis for the Volume Increase of Ice:

The normal pattern for most compounds is that as the temperature of the liquid increases, the density decreases as the molecules spread out from each other. As the temperature decreases, the density increases as the molecules become more closely packed. This pattern does not hold true for ice as the exact opposite occurs.

In liquid water each molecule is hydrogen bonded to approximately 3.4 other water molecules. In ice each molecule is hydrogen bonded to 4 other molecules.

Compare the structures of Liquid Water and Solid Ice - Graphic

Notice the empty spaces within the ice structure, as this translates to a more open or expanded structure. The ice structure takes up more volume than the liquid water molecules, hence ice is less dense than liquid water (http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/122Adensityice.html).

What is the exact change in volume of the water when it freezes as ice?

Comparison of:

 Liquid water

 Ice

 Mass = 100 g

 Mass = 100 g

 Volume = 100 mL

 Volume = ? mL

 Density = 1.0 g/mL

Density = 0.92 g/mL

 

Example: Calculate the volume in a 100 g ice cube with a density of 0.92 g per mL.

 Solution: The density translated as a conversion factor is:

0.92 g = 1 mL - "per" is equivalent to an equal sign.

 100 g x

 1.0 mL =

 108.7 mL

 

0.92 g

 

The increase in volume of ice is about 9%. This increase causes enough force to break most rigid containers. This is the same force, repeated on a daily basis, that creates "pot holes" in the roads in the winter time (http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/122Adensityice.html).

Can the mass of light be calculated?

Yes, it can be mathematically calculated.  No, it can't be experimentally calculated. 

The Heisenberg Uncertainty principle states that it can't, since when ever something is measured it is changed.  Thus the conclusion is that light has two properties.  It has a wave property that is separate from its particle property.  It does two things at once. Therefore this definition means the particle is not a characteristic of the wave and the wave is not a characteristic of the particle.

The case of photons and other particles that move at the speed of light is special.  From the formula relating relativistic mass to invariant mass, it follows that the invariant mass of a photon must be zero, but its relativistic mass need not be.  The phrase "The rest mass of a photon is zero" might sound nonsensical because the photon can never be at rest; but this is just a side effect of the terminology, since by making this statement, we can bring photons into the same mathematical formalism as the everyday particles that do have rest mass.  In modern physics texts, the term mass when unqualified means invariant mass in most cases, and photons are said to be "massless" http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/mass.html

 

If a light is placed in a room and turned on, then photons are being emitted from a source and are moving about the room.  If the light is turned off, the photons are absorbed by the surroundings and stopped.  In space there is less matter to slow or absorb the photons, but eventually they will run into something and be absorbed.  Light works like a train, instead of the train going in a straight line it moves in a wave.  Why? It is easier for the train to stay connected when it moves in a wave.  If a train moved in a straight path for many miles it would be easier for the train to break.  This is simple evolution at the micro scale. I would expect the photon is constantly modifying its density in order to produce the wave effect.  Like water and ice an imbalance produces instability and modulation.   Photons can and do come to rest all the time.

How does an atom produce various frequencies of photons?  The flame test experiment provides clues to the synthesis.  If the mass of a photon is 1.7867745 x 10-42 g, then how does an atom produce any colors other than yellow?  When a metal is burned this is a combustion reaction, which is a reaction in which the metal is combined with oxygen.  Only electrons in transition from higher to lower levels lose energy and emit light. This is how light is produced; atoms produce light in this way in various reactions from nuclear to decomposition reactions.  In the combustion reaction with Hydrogen and Oxygen, Oxygen is the source of light emitted.  In the sun, a tremendous amount of input is required for a fusion reaction.  Thus based on Newton’s third law, the emitted light occurs when the fused atom goes from an excited state to ground state.  

 

What about lightning?  Lightning does not result from a chemical reaction or from a nuclear reaction.  Lightning or the flow of electrons produces light.  So how do only electrons produce light?  Shouldn’t lightning be expected to be yellow in color?  Lightning moves so fast that it breaks the sound barrier, thus this type of movement must produce an environment similar to a tornado or a hurricane.  If we were to go back in time 3000 years, then we would see not light bulbs.  Fire, lightning, and Stars were the primary sources of light at that time.  Light is not continuously produced from a reaction, because the reactants are limited in the space where it is being produced.  Stars stop producing light for several reasons.

 

So how does lighting produce light?  Electrons must work as a team, the photons are like leafs on the roof of an electron when the wind moves the electrons together the photons attract to each other do to their own force of gravity.  Once the electrons loose the excess photons the light from the lighting stops.  Electrons produce light by working as a team.  This occurs in the atom as well.  An atom that is in an excited state has electrons in excited states.  They work together to emit light at different frequencies depending on the number of photons available to the atom during an orbital transition.  The photons are pushed from the atom by the excitement of the storm and pulled together by gravity to form a frequency that defines the element.

How can mass be calculated? 

According to Newton:  For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.  The statement means that in every interaction, there is a pair of forces acting on the two interacting objects. The size of the forces on the first object equals the size of the force on the second object.     F=MA  (Force equals mass times acceleration)  Thus, the mass of the photon can be calculated. 

 

The mass of an electron is 9.109 382 15(45) × 10–31 kg[1]

To move an electron it will take at least the mass of an electron to move it from one place to another based on Newton's third law.  So, when enough sunlight (energy) is absorbed by the material (a semiconductor), electrons are dislodged from the material's atoms.  These electrons do not move on their own, they must be pushed.  Thus Newton's third law comes into play.  This is significant, because it shows that the wave could be proven to be a characteristic of the particle.

 

Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy.  These photons contain various amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum.  When photons strike a photovoltaic cell, they may be reflected, pass right through, or be absorbed.  Only the absorbed photons provide energy to generate electricity.  When enough sunlight (energy) is absorbed by the material (a semiconductor), electrons are dislodged from the material's atoms.  Special treatment of the material surface during manufacturing makes the front surface of the cell more receptive to free electrons, so the electrons naturally migrate to the surface. 
 

Photovoltaic Cell

When the electrons leave their position, holes are formed. When many electrons, each carrying a negative charge, travel toward the front surface of the cell, the resulting imbalance of charge between the cell's front and back surfaces creates a voltage potential like the negative and positive terminals of a battery. When the two surfaces are connected through an external load, electricity flows.  http://www.solcomhouse.com/solarpower.htm

In the photoelectric effect, metals eject electrons called photoelectrons when light shines on them.  The alkali metals Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs are particularly subject to the effect.  Not just any frequency of light will cause the photoelectric effect.  Red light, for example, will not cause the ejection of photoelectrons from potassium, no matter how intense the light.  Yet even a very weak yellow light (v = 5.1 x 1014 s-1) shining on potassium begins the effect.

 

The red frequency has a lower number of photons per second which explains why it can’t push a photoelectron out of the alkali metal.  The photons travel in sequence one after the other just like cars on a highway or bicyclists in a race.  This explains why increasing the frequency causes the electrons to travel faster out of the alkali metal. 

 

The weakest frequency provides the starting point in determination of an approximate mass of a photon.  If 5.1 x 1014 photons per sec are shot at an alkali metal and it begins to release electrons, then it will be assumed to release one electron per 5.1 x 1014 photons per sec.  Increasing the threshold frequency produces an increase in the number of electrons ejected, because the increasing the threshold frequency represents an increase in the light intensity.  The starting point is important, since it provides a reference point.  Increasing the frequency causes the electron to move faster which reinforces Newton’s third law. 

 The following is the calculation for the relativistic mass of a Photon:

If it takes 5.1 x 1014 photons to emit one photoelectron, then an electron can be divided up into 5.1 x1014 photons.

 

                                    1 electron = 5.1 x 1014 photons

 

If the electron has a mass of 9.11 x 10-28 and 5.1 x 1014 photons can produce the photo-electric effect, then the mass of a photon can be calculated to be 1.7867745 x 10-42 g.

 

                                    Mass photon = Mass of electron / 5.1 x 1014 photons

 

                                    Mass photon = 1.8 x 10-42 g

 

What is the difference between the weight of an photon and the mass of a photon?  Gravity.  Thus, when an object is being measured to get the best data about it the force of gravity must be canceled in order to determine the mass.  A balance works by using a fulcrum to measure mass, since the force of gravity pulls down on both sides of the balance.  Both the electron and the photon move in wave form, since they are moving they have a force (force=mass x acceleration).  When two objects that have the same mass and the same force strike each other what happens?   Does Momentum, and it’s Conservation, reflect the prediction, or perhaps what you’ve even seen in real life? According to the conservation of momentum principle, the total amount of momentum before the photons strike the electrons is equal to the total amount afterwards – so after the energy collides they should also have a momentum of zero kg m/s.  The point here is not that the photons and electrons will stop or have a momentum of zero.  The objective is to get a general idea of the mass of a photon.  The closer the collision is to the hypothetical momentum of zero, the closer we are to the predictable mass of a photon.  Objects are going to continue to move, because zero is not equal to one.  This means that a photon would have to be turned into nothing to stop it from moving.  When a photons collide with electrons we are not looking for zero momentum but an equal dispersion of momentum from the point of collision. The photoelectric effect does not occur with every color of light  In an equal dispersion of momentum the particles or energy are being dispersed from a central point in all directions.  This does not mean that the particles will be dispersed equally in all directions, because collisions are not always balanced.  This dispersion is responsible for the photo electric effect.  

 

 

The transformation between the particle (real, hard electron) and wave is really a transformation between the momentum of the electron (or another particle) and its corresponding wave. The electron must be moving to acquire mo and a wave property. We are thus dealing with momentum-wave duality rather than particle-wave duality. When the electron is not accelerated it has no mo and no wave properties <http://www.hyperflight.com/primer.htm>.

Because the particle must be moving before its wave properties are able to manifest, a better way of seeing this mechanism is as the momentum-wave duality and not as particle-wave duality. If the electron is not accelerated, it still could be a particle but it has no wave property. So, the electron has no mo and no wave. To make this a bit more involved -- but really interesting -- a moving electron may have its wave properties suppressed, too. See below. (The actual electron with all of its properties is described -- along with applications considerations -- in the Quantum Pythagoreans book.)

 

So, why doesn’t the electron move in set paths or straight lines?  The earth orbits in a set path around the Sun.  However, strong earth quakes and the China dam have shown that the earth can change its rotation slightly based on a density change.  If the mass of the Earth were to change volume dramatically, then a change in the rotation of the Earth and path around the sun would change.  If electrons or photons moved in set paths, would they bend easily?  The bending of light makes light more difficult to break apart.  Photons move in sequence one after another, changing the sequence changes the frequency.

 

Every individual photon and every individual electron behaves the same way. Each photon (and each electron) behaves independently of all other photons (electrons). The wave representation of a moving electron or photon forms superposition (interference) pattern that is computable in accord with its own, and therefore individual, de Broglie wavelength http://www.hyperflight.com/primer.htm>.

 

What other evidence do we have that a photon has mass?  Photons stay together when they are produced.  A prism can be used to separate the photons.  So, what keeps them so tightly joined together?  Gravity is the only force we know of that is strong enough at such a small level.   Gravity is the strong force that keeps the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus of an atom. 

 

What other evidence exists that a density change in the particle produces the wave effect?  The best evidence is the atom.  Electrons move in orbits around the atom.  They must be in control of their movement or total chaos would result.  The atom is a structured system.  The electron must be in control of what it is doing or energy levels would conflict.  If the wave and particle were separate only one wave size would be expected.  There is no other way to describe the various sizes of waves, then to conclude that the particle is altering its density to control the wavelength. Water undergoes multiple density changes, and specific ones for changes in state; thus density changes are the mechanism the particle uses to produce the wave effect.

No, it can't be experimentally calculated.  Why?

Relativistic mass is a measure of the energy E of a particle, which changes with velocity.  By convention, relativistic mass is not usually called the mass of a particle in contemporary physics so, at least semantically, it is wrong to say the photon has mass in this way.  But you can say that the photon has relativistic mass if you really want to.  In modern terminology the mass of an object is its invariant mass, which is zero for a photon, because photons cannot be brought to rest.    

Why can't the mass of a photon be experimentally calculated?  The best way to explain this would be to examine the difference between mass and weight.  Weight is really a measure of gravity.  An astronaut weights more on earth than the moon.  However, with a balance the forces of gravity are canceled, since the fulcrum is in the center of the objects being compared.  Like a see saw at the play ground.  Both objects on either side of the see saw experience the same force of gravity, so it cancels out. 

So, getting a photon to rest on a balance is not going to occur.  Thus, how is it certain that the mass is correct above?  When trying to measure mass, the objective is to eliminate outside forces.  Thus get them to cancel out. 

We know that both the electron and the photon move in a wave form, so when they strike each other with equal mass comparisons can be made.  When the same mass of water and gold are placed on opposite ends of a see saw they are in balance.  If a tractor trailer smashes head on into a car, the tractor trailer will push the car violently out of the way.  If a car strikes a bicyclist head on, then the bicyclist will be thrown based on the mass of the car and its acceleration.  Force equals mass times acceleration, so the larger the object is an the faster it is moving the greater the force.  So, if two identical cars collide head on traveling with the same acceleration it is like slamming into a brick wall or coming to a complete stop.  Remember the mass of the cars has not changed.  Just like the mass of the electron and photon has not changed during a collision. 

The stopping of an electron causes a disruption of its spin, thus producing the ejection.  Why do electrons repel each other?  We know that electrons move in opposite directions because they can unite like photons and increase their wavelength.  This would produce an electron ejection.  Thus the atom needs to prevent this from happening, so the electrons move head on in each orbital. 

The best way to answer this question is to look at Iron.  We know that no energy is released or gained from the fusion or fission of Iron.  Thus this is not a spontaneous process.  A star will die because of the fusion of Iron.  What this means is that electrons could be fused, but the results would be similar to that of mixing foods that don't blend well.  Why is iron so stable?  Some objects just fit together and divide evenly producing or absorbing very little motion.  A stable product is considered to be one that stays together without breaking down easily.  Electrons repel each other, because they don’t produce a stable product when forced together.  It is important to remember that a neutron can break apart into an electron which is the smaller part or negative part and the proton which is the larger part or positive part.  These two parts cling together, since the correct amount of negative along with the precise amount of positive will produce an overall balanced product.

So, getting a photon to rest on a balance is not going to occur.  Thus, how is it certain that the mass is correct above?  When trying to measure mass, the objective is to eliminate outside forces.  Thus get them to cancel out. 

 

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